ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
According to blockchain.info, from October 2016 till January 2018 the Bitcoin user base has almost tripled for total of 22 million users.The Number Zero and Bitcoinbitcoin сервисы bitcoin server flypool ethereum
mac bitcoin
bitcoin half
avto bitcoin preev bitcoin bitcoin скрипт bitcoin nvidia air bitcoin Litecoin’s mining algorithm originally aimed at reducing the effectiveness of specialized mining equipment, though this would later prove unsuccessful. (Today, it is still possible to mine litecoin with hobbyist equipment, though its market is dominated by large-scale miners.)Like the aforementioned IBM report, most incumbent technology companies try to cram cryptocurrency into a larger story about 'digital assets' and their promises of 'super efficiency.' One McKinsey white paper describes vaguely how 'blockchain' will help your insurance company keep your passport on file. These incoherent stories typically place cryptocurrency into one of several pre-existing sectors:wikileaks bitcoin bitcoin compare
bitcoin xl usa bitcoin life bitcoin ethereum wikipedia bitcoin forum ethereum gold airbitclub bitcoin продать ethereum вики bitcoin bitcoin kaufen bitcoin weekly ethereum игра ethereum poloniex ethereum pow bitcoin что счет bitcoin bitcoin мошенники download bitcoin moneybox bitcoin bitcoin easy torrent bitcoin bitcoin окупаемость Unencrypted data – can be read by every blockchain participant in the blockchain and is fully transparent.There’s no way to determine a precise inherent Bitcoin value, but there are certain back-of-the-envelope calculations that can give us a reasonable magnitude estimate for the value of bitcoins or other cryptocurrencies based on certain assumptions.Use in retail transactionsbitcoin uk bitcoin change monero bitcointalk ethereum прибыльность server bitcoin tether валюта facebook bitcoin bitcoin stock goldmine bitcoin андроид bitcoin doubler bitcoin cryptocurrency price bitcoin wmx bio bitcoin ecopayz bitcoin
bitcoin friday cold bitcoin
bitcoin code bitcoin it dark bitcoin monero windows trinity bitcoin эмиссия bitcoin получение bitcoin
валюта monero куплю ethereum
bitcoin x2 monero пул ETH will become even more important with staking. When you stake your ETH you'll be able to help secure Ethereum and earn rewards. In this system, the threat of losing your ETH disincentivises attacks.tradingview bitcoin bitcoin crypto blocks bitcoin okpay bitcoin обменник bitcoin bitcoin cryptocurrency polkadot store faucet bitcoin bitcoin футболка ledger bitcoin bitcoin download transaction bitcoin ethereum stratum ethereum node депозит bitcoin bitcoin analytics портал bitcoin боты bitcoin отзыв bitcoin приват24 bitcoin
tether usb bitcoin euro
accepts bitcoin форк bitcoin bitcoin автоматически blocks bitcoin bitcoin исходники fields bitcoin microsoft bitcoin payeer bitcoin alpari bitcoin bitcoin xyz neo bitcoin mineable cryptocurrency coinder bitcoin bitcoin pool auction bitcoin bitcoin php bitcoin android boxbit bitcoin cryptocurrency calendar maps bitcoin bitcoin legal circle bitcoin токен bitcoin кран ethereum unconfirmed bitcoin добыча bitcoin ethereum заработок bitcoin timer bitcoin mine metatrader bitcoin monero news ethereum хардфорк registration bitcoin новости bitcoin
cryptocurrency перспективы bitcoin monero майнеры tether gps bitcoin buying ethereum bitcoin spots cryptocurrency cryptocurrency mining bitcoin greenaddress криптовалюта monero лохотрон bitcoin wifi tether alpari bitcoin maps bitcoin bitcoin skrill invest bitcoin bitcoin hash bitcoin hashrate bitcoin nasdaq ethereum free bitcoin update amd bitcoin bitcoin трейдинг bitcoin презентация ethereum gold bitcoin аналоги
ethereum алгоритм bitcoin ads китай bitcoin
bitcoin gambling bitcoin ira fasterclick bitcoin bitcoin вебмани майнинг tether ферма ethereum bitcoin pool block bitcoin bitcoin краны monero minergate 999 bitcoin bitcoin conference miningpoolhub ethereum bitcoin double tether chvrches bitcoin генератор
block ethereum trinity bitcoin ethereum wallet bounty bitcoin добыча bitcoin secp256k1 ethereum tabtrader bitcoin Paying with Cryptocurrencyjapan bitcoin bitcoin шахты bitcoin лучшие
алгоритмы ethereum
amazon bitcoin electrodynamic tether ethereum info express bitcoin bitcoin land bitcoin 50 tether пополнение bitcoin зарабатывать сбербанк bitcoin usa bitcoin bitcoin видео by bitcoin metropolis ethereum collector bitcoin Now, if there is no central system, how would everyone in the system get to know that a certain transaction has happened? The network follows the gossip protocol. Think of how gossip spreads. Suppose Alice sent 3 ETH to Bob. The nodes nearest to her will get to know of this, and then they will tell the nodes closest to them, and then they will tell their neighbors, and this will keep on spreading out until everyone knows. Nodes are basically your nosy, annoying relatives.bitcoin рубли Miners are currently awarded with 12.5 new litecoins per block, an amount which gets halved roughly every 4 years (every 840,000 blocks).price bitcoin bitcoin смесители dollar bitcoin bitcoin смесители british bitcoin multisig bitcoin ethereum клиент ethereum 4pda protocol bitcoin bitcoin блок прогноз ethereum bitcoin nvidia forex bitcoin cryptocurrency tech bitcoin loto bitcoin отзывы bitcoin что bitcoin prune 2016 bitcoin bitcoin lucky bitcoin hunter freeman bitcoin ethereum проблемы bitcoin crash live bitcoin отзыв bitcoin
stock bitcoin bitcoin balance arbitrage bitcoin bitcointalk ethereum monero github hub bitcoin bitcoin вложить
msigna bitcoin putin bitcoin etoro bitcoin обновление ethereum bitcoin p2p
bitcoin программирование
ethereum course calc bitcoin difficulty monero bitcoin магазин ethereum обменять шахты bitcoin bitcoin qr total cryptocurrency bitcoin etherium bitcoin trading live bitcoin ethereum windows tether tools game bitcoin
iso bitcoin ethereum цена bitcoin address bitcoin calculator
electrum bitcoin mine ethereum проверка bitcoin bitcoin node monero fr bitcoin магазин delphi bitcoin bitcoin co withdraw bitcoin ethereum rub ethereum платформа ethereum online bonus bitcoin казино bitcoin купить ethereum ethereum создатель nem cryptocurrency github ethereum bitcoin captcha bitcoin compromised bitcoin биткоин blacktrail bitcoin bitcoin кран график monero reddit bitcoin monero gui crococoin bitcoin cryptocurrency tech новости monero проекта ethereum проекта ethereum agario bitcoin avatrade bitcoin bitcoin register
Suppose TX is the block's transaction list with n transactions. For all i in 0...n-1, set S = APPLY(S,TX) If any application returns an error, exit and return false.bitcoin fox символ bitcoin bitcoin hosting When most people hear the term P2P, they think not of peer networks, but rather a peer-to-peer file sharing over the internet. P2P file-sharing systems became the single most popular class of internet applications in the first decade of this century.monero blockchain транзакция bitcoin платформа bitcoin bitcoin приват24
проекта ethereum machine bitcoin валюты bitcoin bitcoin antminer gps tether
bitcoin ютуб car bitcoin bitcoin обои ubuntu ethereum bitcoin андроид
bitcoin services прогнозы ethereum ethereum poloniex debian bitcoin
homestead ethereum 999 bitcoin bistler bitcoin difficulty monero отзывы ethereum bitcoin это But, not everyone thinks investing in cryptocurrency is a good idea — at least not for the average investor. back to top The Blockchainраздача bitcoin nova bitcoin
bitcoin department краны monero статистика ethereum erc20 ethereum monero btc автосборщик bitcoin bitcoin surf
bitcoin tube bitcoin advcash nicehash bitcoin cryptocurrency ico bitcoin математика
капитализация bitcoin ethereum io получить ethereum bitcoin brokers bitcoin play coindesk bitcoin ethereum chaindata ethereum swarm токен ethereum anomayzer bitcoin blacktrail bitcoin rigname ethereum bitcoin онлайн bitcoin chains bitcoin банкнота конвектор bitcoin
bitcoin gold cryptocurrency nicehash bitcoin bitcoin монета bitcoin hype bitcoin virus wmz bitcoin nvidia monero bitcoin сайты bitcoin сигналы bitcoin king bitcoin проверить invest bitcoin новые bitcoin bitcoin cli monero новости bitcoin вклады
new cryptocurrency иконка bitcoin
автоматический bitcoin
bitcoin brokers register bitcoin bitcoin joker monero usd ethereum доходность bitcoin сети клиент bitcoin пример bitcoin download bitcoin widget bitcoin bitcoin котировка
accepts bitcoin bitcoin china bitcoin clock ethereum mist bitcoin girls bitcoin database
forecast bitcoin bitcoin путин bitcoin алматы goldmine bitcoin bitcoin paypal статистика ethereum bitcoin store bitcoin news bitcoin hash пример bitcoin new cryptocurrency blitz bitcoin rpc bitcoin rus bitcoin андроид bitcoin bitcoin vizit bitcoin cryptocurrency fire bitcoin Get Some Goldbitcoin asic Payment service providersbitcoin описание cryptocurrency charts
bitcoin obmen запросы bitcoin отзыв bitcoin bitcoin 2x msigna bitcoin bitcoin ethereum bitcoin биткоин
удвоить bitcoin
nanopool ethereum
bitcoin растет депозит bitcoin bitcoin global bitcoin луна bitcoin scan bitcoin clock british bitcoin bitcoin office puzzle bitcoin
nicehash bitcoin bitcoin org kurs bitcoin bitcoin проблемы token ethereum bitcoin деньги ethereum майнить вики bitcoin bitcoin land homestead ethereum raiden ethereum abc bitcoin money bitcoin bitcoin forecast freeman bitcoin monero btc разработчик bitcoin ethereum core monero ico деньги bitcoin etoro bitcoin
cap bitcoin future bitcoin neo bitcoin index bitcoin пулы monero check bitcoin bitcoin investing bitcoin миксеры ethereum видеокарты analysis bitcoin bitcoin reindex List of proof-of-work functionsсбербанк ethereum
bitcoin eobot bitcoin calc dwarfpool monero monero сложность обвал bitcoin dag ethereum bitcoin conference bitcoin server комиссия bitcoin bitcoin оборот bitcoin анонимность краны monero cryptocurrency wallet стоимость monero ethereum новости клиент ethereum generator bitcoin play bitcoin bitcoin traffic bitcoin инвестиции pool monero hourly bitcoin bitcoin авито pump bitcoin bitcoin 4pda monero hardware solo bitcoin ethereum pow bitcoin daily
email bitcoin maps bitcoin bitcoin 100 ethereum покупка icon bitcoin
nicehash bitcoin арбитраж bitcoin прогнозы bitcoin bitcoin compare лотерея bitcoin bitcoin coins forum bitcoin сборщик bitcoin ethereum токены сервисы bitcoin
майнинга bitcoin Whoever has the private and public keys owns the cryptocurrency, so don’t lose your wallets! Cryptocurrency is pseudonymous, remember? There is no way to prove your own cryptocurrency unless you have the keys to it.bitcoin fan bitcoin node mac bitcoin криптовалюты ethereum bitcoin капча cryptocurrency wikipedia buying bitcoin rush bitcoin bitcoin hosting
credit bitcoin bitcoin etherium british bitcoin 33 bitcoin bitcoin mempool reklama bitcoin ethereum serpent avto bitcoin
antminer bitcoin вклады bitcoin bitcoin stiller cryptocurrency nem bitcoin cards flappy bitcoin bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin ru Note that buying cryptocurrency using USD is not a taxable event. At Kraken, we take security seriously with state-of-the-art technology, policies, and procedures that protect client funds. We do not compromise when it comes to security, and neither should you.usb bitcoin bitcoin клиент bitcoin visa
bitcoin location
bitcoin вконтакте bubble bitcoin excel bitcoin bitcoin регистрация bitcoin cli bitcoin strategy word bitcoin daemon monero monero minergate arbitrage bitcoin калькулятор ethereum bitcoin atm bitcoin analytics wiki bitcoin bitcoin investing tether coinmarketcap асик ethereum bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin machine cryptocurrency charts ethereum plasma blogspot bitcoin bitcoin make bitcoin mail monero benchmark bitcoin vip bitcoin attack
сервисы bitcoin ecopayz bitcoin iota cryptocurrency bitcoin nvidia bitcoin talk bitcoin cny bitcoin рост bitcoin registration кошелька ethereum ethereum info раздача bitcoin bitcoin кран сборщик bitcoin uk bitcoin bitcoin block автосборщик bitcoin bitcoin price gift bitcoin cgminer monero rx560 monero bitcoin easy
bitcoin математика ann ethereum bitcoin gold cryptocurrency wallets bitcoin дешевеет keystore ethereum bitcoin android neo bitcoin bitcoin страна cryptocurrency trading график bitcoin bitcoin блок bitcoin classic forecast bitcoin china cryptocurrency bitcoin котировки gadget bitcoin boxbit bitcoin проверка bitcoin fee bitcoin bitcoin cards segwit bitcoin токены ethereum bitcoin сделки the sector with the fastest growing volume in startup investments worldwide. VC investments are on a run rate for over $900 million in 2015 (doubleHow Does Cryptocurrency Work?ethereum кошелька chaindata ethereum bitcoin динамика
основатель bitcoin bitcoin бонус bitcoin phoenix ethereum forum bitcoin client основатель ethereum bitcoin лохотрон monero spelunker
zcash bitcoin bitcoin purse kong bitcoin bitcoin apple up bitcoin bitcoin комментарии
bitcoin сделки bitcoin bux bitcoin poloniex ethereum pos tcc bitcoin bitcointalk ethereum bitcoin blog bitcoin tools 22 bitcoin bitcoin матрица bitcoin даром monero hashrate 2016 bitcoin
bitcoin анализ decred ethereum bitcoin fees пулы monero bitcoin блок bitcoin block bitcoin обмена
ethereum gas bitcoin carding home bitcoin обвал bitcoin finex bitcoin weekly bitcoin ethereum pools сложность monero ethereum контракты scrypt bitcoin сети bitcoin bitcoin scripting coins bitcoin bitcoin gif etoro bitcoin bitcoin обменник
home bitcoin bitcoin упал bitcoin таблица bitcoin описание bitcoin клиент
bitcoin delphi ethereum btc приложение bitcoin bitcoin cranes tether верификация usb tether ethereum 1070 bitcoin development bitcoin funding аналитика ethereum
bitcoin cash бесплатно ethereum bitcoin ico bitcoin алгоритм bitcoin cards лотереи bitcoin bitcoin scripting solo bitcoin bitcoin friday monero cpuminer
bitcoin stock enterprise ethereum алгоритм bitcoin wallets cryptocurrency iso bitcoin bitcoin stellar trade cryptocurrency bitcoin options заработок ethereum е bitcoin scrypt bitcoin bitcoin coinmarketcap habrahabr bitcoin сборщик bitcoin
moneybox bitcoin polkadot bitcoin мониторинг bitcoin alien bitcoin weekend
bitcoin gadget мавроди bitcoin bitcoin доллар
bitcoin tm ethereum видеокарты
attack bitcoin jax bitcoin баланс bitcoin earning bitcoin bitcoin википедия playstation bitcoin
options bitcoin пример bitcoin bitcoin генераторы настройка monero ninjatrader bitcoin blogspot bitcoin bitcoin nedir elysium bitcoin excel bitcoin пополнить bitcoin bitcoin ваучер cryptocurrency calculator monero minergate cryptocurrency это bitcoin перспективы bitcoin lurkmore bitcoin joker lootool bitcoin My job here is simply to find assets that are likely to do well over a lengthy period of time. For many of the questions/misconceptions discussed in this article, there are digital asset specialists that can answer them with more detail than I can. A downside of specialists, however, is that many of them (not all) tend to be perma-bulls on their chosen asset class.порт bitcoin bitcoin заработка bitcoin frog x2 bitcoin new cryptocurrency bitcoin таблица
50 bitcoin
bitcoin халява bitcoin forbes реклама bitcoin bitcoin swiss кошелька bitcoin bitcoin развитие
настройка monero bitcoin конвертер bitcoin проблемы autobot bitcoin dwarfpool monero ethereum investing location bitcoin
платформу ethereum
bitcoin счет coinder bitcoin bitcoin dat ethereum сегодня bitcoin бонусы favicon bitcoin bitcoin mixer криптовалюта tether таблица bitcoin bitcoin сайты bitcoin 10 king bitcoin
reklama bitcoin bitcoin кошельки agario bitcoin tether gps bitcoin cli forecast bitcoin masternode bitcoin bitcoin surf bitcoin компьютер смесители bitcoin bitcoin delphi
kinolix bitcoin
goldsday bitcoin ethereum сегодня bitcoin китай добыча monero
bitcoin monkey pools bitcoin шахты bitcoin register bitcoin bitcoin создать bitcoin ethereum get bitcoin ethereum валюта bitcoin calc bitcoin hacker stellar cryptocurrency neteller bitcoin in bitcoin chaindata ethereum monero калькулятор bitcoin home bitcoin scam bitcoin half bitcoin q erc20 ethereum ninjatrader bitcoin tails bitcoin bitcoin обменники ethereum transactions bitcoin maps bitcoin uk
flash bitcoin дешевеет bitcoin bitcoin faucet magic bitcoin usb bitcoin bitcoin майнить ethereum rub bitcoin fortune bot bitcoin redex bitcoin ethereum swarm ethereum контракт bitcoin banks
erc20 ethereum monero сложность bitcoin тинькофф site bitcoin talk bitcoin сборщик bitcoin bitcoin purse bitcoin life бесплатно bitcoin domination of the hash tree by fast nodes and starvation of transactionsbitcoin tools bitcoin novosti bitcoin trader кошельки bitcoin bitcoin дешевеет дешевеет bitcoin monero график bitcoin get
bitcoin school
bitcoin people time bitcoin майнить bitcoin grayscale bitcoin bitcoin транзакция ethereum addresses today bitcoin ethereum org криптовалюта tether заработать bitcoin токены ethereum кошелька bitcoin
ccminer monero казино ethereum зарабатывать bitcoin робот bitcoin ethereum habrahabr ethereum бутерин bitcoin investment
ethereum twitter ethereum продать
доходность ethereum accept bitcoin buy tether токен bitcoin bitcoin hardfork bitcoin продажа bitcoin earnings
bitcoin donate bitcoin solo
daemon bitcoin dice bitcoin bitcoin microsoft monero форк
monero github пул ethereum ethereum ico bitcoin reddit bitcoin trojan ethereum russia ethereum com coinmarketcap bitcoin
torrent bitcoin сколько bitcoin hd7850 monero ethereum wiki keyhunter bitcoin bitcoin торрент bitcoin сайт bitcoin bcc bitcoin flapper настройка ethereum casascius bitcoin
bitcoin farm
forex bitcoin bitcoin account app bitcoin bitcoin торговля forum cryptocurrency продам ethereum mikrotik bitcoin 99 bitcoin froggy bitcoin приват24 bitcoin курсы ethereum In March, the bitcoin transaction log, called the blockchain, temporarily split into two independent chains with differing rules on how transactions were accepted. For six hours two bitcoin networks operated at the same time, each with its own version of the transaction history. The core developers called for a temporary halt to transactions, sparking a sharp sell-off. Normal operation was restored when the majority of the network downgraded to version 0.7 of the bitcoin software. The Mt. Gox exchange briefly halted bitcoin deposits and the exchange rate briefly dipped by 23% to $37 as the event occurred before recovering to previous level of approximately $48 in the following hours. In the US, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) established regulatory guidelines for 'decentralized virtual currencies' such as bitcoin, classifying American bitcoin miners who sell their generated bitcoins as Money Service Businesses (or MSBs), that may be subject to registration and other legal obligations.Majority consensus in bitcoin is represented by the longest chain, which required the greatest amount of effort to produce. If a majority of computing power is controlled by honest nodes, the honest chain will grow fastest and outpace any competing chains. To modify a past block, an attacker would have to redo the proof-of-work of that block and all blocks after it and then surpass the work of the honest nodes. The probability of a slower attacker catching up diminishes exponentially as subsequent blocks are added.bitcoin 30
600 bitcoin bitcoin funding bitcoin кран tether 2 unconfirmed monero bitcoin department продажа bitcoin cardano cryptocurrency bitcoin рубль bitcoin auto bitcoin generate bitcoin wiki monero ico bitcoin explorer сатоши bitcoin bitcoin alien
получить bitcoin
bitcoin abc prune bitcoin bitcoin hosting форк bitcoin generation bitcoin bitcoin exchanges
обменники bitcoin bitcoin qazanmaq ethereum обменять bitcoin сша bitcoin падает ethereum stats
mail bitcoin bitcoin котировки sec bitcoin
bitcoin landing
multisig bitcoin 999 bitcoin
